Korean literature is the body of literature produced in Korea or by Korean writers. For much of history, it was written both in classical Chinese and in Korean, first using the transcription systems idu and gugyeol, and finally using the Korean script hangul.[1] It is commonly divided into classical and modern periods, although this distinction is sometimes unclear.
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In general, the written arts have a tradition in epigraphic inscriptions on stones, in early tombs, and on rarely found bamboo pieces that formed early books. Repeated invasions and sacking of the east and west capitals, as well as the difficulty in preserving written texts on bamboo, make works before 1000 rare. Those works were entirely written in Chinese characters, the language of scholars, but of course incorporated Korean words and mindset. Medieval scholars in Korea learnt Chinese as western schoolmen learned Latin: as a lingua franca for the region.[2] It helped cultural exchanges extensively.
Notable examples of historical records are very well documented from early times, and as well Korean books with movable type, often imperial encyclopedias or historical records, were circulated as early as the 7th century during the Three Kingdoms era from printing wood-blocks; and in the Goryeo era the world's first metal type, and books printed by metal type, most probably of copper, were produced. Fully two hundred years before the work of Johann Gutenberg or William Caxton whom, to most Westerners, "invented" the first printing presses.
Scriptoria have existed since the beginning of the culture, and rose to great importance in Buddhist and Confucianist schools with circulation of texts, inter-lineal glosses, and commentaries from those religions. Most Buddhist literature was recited aloud, had limited repeated vocabulary, and was used for deeply impressing religious states, or for memory training or mnemonics.
Genres are very similar to Chinese, and even western ones. There are epics, poetry, religious texts and exegetical commentaries on Buddhist and Confucianist learning; translations of foreign works; plays and court rituals; comedies, tragedies, mixed genres; and various kinds of novels. Radioplays and screenplays are extensive, few have been translated, many are archived but not available to the public. And no research work has been done in this area. Translation work of the most famous Korean literature has been slow, during the Japanese occupation, creative writing in Korean was forbidden and there are few works of literature published at home from 1910-1945.
Works by exiles in Shanghai, and other regions, are little known. The overseas Korean writers, expatriates, have had limited success other than in travel literature which is widely read.
Korean epic is best represented by works such as Yi Gyu-bo's King Dongmyeong of Goguryeo, which derives much of its influence from narrative histories done by writers such as Yi Je-hyeon (hangul: 이제현, hanja: 李齊賢), and before that Yi Il-lo (hangul: 이인로, hanja: 李仁老), Yi Gyu-bo (hangul: 이규보, hanja: 李奎報), and Choi Chu for battlefield histories and stories.
To some extent 20th century literature under American influence has moved to separate integrated art forms such as calligraphy to the standardization of printed books. The 21st century though has revived integrated art forms of literature in Korean animated blogs, and over-designed, visually dense homepages and websites. Manhwa, or illustrated novels, are very popular.
Contemporary Korean literature is robust as Korea is a nation of readers. Book prices are low, and writers are respected, with many having academic positions as well as being well known on television.
Internet blogs, and bloggers are creating the next generation of novelists, and writings by women are extremely well regarded. There are few if any attempts to promote Korean literature overseas, and small printings of translations, with few experts to teach the works make recognition of masterworks slow to the west.
Classical Korean literature has its roots in traditional folk beliefs and folk tales of the Korean peninsula. One famous example of this early literature is the poem or song known as the Gonghuin (箜篌引) by Yeo-ok (麗玉, 여옥). Other influences include Confucianism, Buddhism and to some extent Taoism.
Traditional Korean literature, written in Chinese characters (Hanja), was established at the same time as the Chinese script arrived on the peninsula. Korean scholars were writing poetry in the classical Chinese style as early as the 4th century. Some historians exclude these forms of literature from Korean literature, arguing that they were merely forms of Chinese literature. Others argue, however, that the fact that Chinese characters were used is not reason enough to exclude the literature from the classical Korean canon, particularly since it reflects Korean thought and experience.
Under Unified Silla, a national academy was founded to promote Korean literature. For most of the era, Korean upper educated classes were bilingual, speaking Korean but writing in Classical Chinese like in Japan and Vietnam.
Hyangga (hangul: 향가, hanja: 鄕歌) was written in Korean using modified Chinese characters in a system that is called idu (hangul: 이두, hanja: 吏讀), literally "clerk's writings." Specifically, the variety of idu used to write hyangga was sometimes called "hyangchal". Idu was a clever system whereby Koreans, who spoke a language much different from Chinese, would use Chinese characters to express Korean. The key to the system was to use some Chinese characters for their intended purpose, their meaning, and others for their pronunciation, ignoring their pictographic meaning. On the surface, it appears to be a complicated, even incomprehensible system, but after using the system one becomes comfortable with certain characters consistently standing for Korean words, and others representing Chinese.
Hyangga was the first uniquely Korean form of poetry. Only twenty five survive.[3] The Samguk Yusa contains 14 poems and the "Gyunyeojeon", a set of biographies of prominent monks, contains eleven poems. Both these classic works were written much after the Unified Silla, in the subsequent Goryeo dynasty, yet the poems in the Samguk Yusa appear to be based on no-longer-extant records actually from the Silla period.
Hyangga are characterized by a number of formal rules. The poems may consist of four, eight or ten lines. The ten-line poems are the most developed, structured into three sections with four, four, and two lines respectively. Many of the ten-line poems were written by Buddhist monks. And Buddhist themes predominate the poems. Another dominant theme was "death". Many of the poems are eulogies to monks, to warriors, and to family members.
The Goryeo period was marked by a growing use of Chinese characters. Hyangga largely disappeared as a form of Korean literature, and "Goryeo gayo" (hangul: 고려가요, literally "Goryeo songs") became more popular. Most of the Goryeo songs were transmitted orally and many survived into the Joseon period, when some of them were written down using hangul.
The poetic form of the Goryeo songs is known as byeolgok (hangul: 별곡). There are two distinct forms: dallyeonche (단련체) and yeonjanche (연잔체). The former is a shorter form in which the entire poem was put into a single stanza, whereas the latter is a more extended form in which the poem is put into several stanzas. The Goryeo songs are characterized by their lack of clear form, and by their increased length. Most are direct in their nature, and cover aspects of common life.
Sijo and gasa are closely linked to the development of hangul in the early Joseon period. As hangul was created, akjang was developed as a way to note musical scores using the Korean script. King Sejong himself is credited with a compilation of Buddhist songs.
Sijo (literally current tune) was common in the Joseon period. Although its poetic form was established in the late Goryeo period, it did not become popular until the Joseon period. Many of the sijo reflected Confucian thought; the theme of loyalty is common. Sijo are characterized by a structure of three stanzas of four feet each. Each foot contains three to four syllables except on the third stanza, where the 1st foot is supposed to have 3 syllables and the 2nd foot can have as many as seven. Sijo are thought to have been popular with common people.
Gasa is a form of verse, although its content can include more than the expression of individual sentiment, such as moral admonitions. Gasa is a simple form of verse, with twinned feet of three or four syllables each. Some regard gasa a form of essay. Common themes in gasa were nature, the virtues of gentlemen, or love between man and woman.
The first known classical work of Korean fiction is Geumo Sinhwa (金鰲新話 금오신화 New stories from Mount Geumo) by Kim Si-seup (김시습). It was written in Chinese characters. From the 17th century onwards, fiction became increasingly popular and more readily available through book rental schemes.
Pansori-based fiction was a particularly popular form of fiction, appearing in the late 17th and early 18th century, based on the five orally transmitted pansori (Chunhyangga, Simcheongga, Heungbuga, Jeokbyeokga and Sugungga). Although based on older traditional songs, it was composed in its present form in the 1870s by the pansori writer , and characterized by human stereotypes of ordinary people of the time.
In the mid-Joseon period, parable-like stories were published. By the end of the Joseon period, many writers had started to deviate from the orthodox conventions of classical Chinese literature, and literature about common people such as merchants, thieves, or gisaeng were commonplace.
Yongbi eocheonga (hangul: 용비어천가, hanja: 龍飛御天歌) literally means "Songs of the Dragons Flying to Heaven". It was compiled during the reign of Sejong the Great as an official recognition of the Joseon dynasty and its ancestral heritage as the forerunners of Joseon, the Golden Age of Korea. The Songs were composed through the efforts of a committee of Confucian philologists and literati in the form of 125 cantos.
This compilation was the first piece of Korean text to depart from a long history reliant on Chinese characters and be recorded in Hangul, the first and official alphabet of Korea. There are several underlying themes in addition to the establishment of the Joseon Dynasty which are of significant importance to understanding the events that provoked the creation of these poems: linear events that took place in China, the apotheosis of virtuous Kings proceeding the fall of the Goryeo Dynasty, and Confucian political and philosophical ideologies of the era in rejection to Buddhism. Each of the poems included in the work convey deep-seated feelings of nationalism and a proud proclamation of cultural independence from the Mongol empire.
Modern Korean literature developed against the background of the Joseon Dynasty's fall. This first period of modern Korean literature is often called "enlightenment". This period was to a large extent influenced by the 1894 Gabo Reforms which introduced Western-style schools and newspapers emerged. Many newspapers published sijo, gasa, or even serial novels and led to the emergence of professional writers. Sinchesi (hangul: 신체시, literally "new poetry") was established, and contributed to the formation of modern free verse poetry which is called Jayusi (hangul: 자유시). Sinchesi abandoned the fixed metaphor found in classical Korean poetry, influenced by the French vers libre.
Many biographical works were published in the late Joseon period where the main character was often depicted as a hero. These works cultivated patriotism and national consciousness.
Modern Korean literature gradually developed under the influence of Western cultural contacts based on trade and economic development.[4] The first printed work of fiction in Korean was John Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress (in Korean 천로역정) in the translation of James Scarth Gale (1893).
Christian thought found its way into Korea, culminating in the first complete edition of the Bible in Korean published in 1910. However, it was mostly artistic styles that influenced Korean literature. Music and classical poetry, formerly considered one as part of changgok, were increasingly perceived as separate realms.
Modern literature is often linked with the development of hangul, which helped spread literacy from the dominant classes to the common people, including women. Hangul, however, only reached a dominant position in Korean literature in the second half of the 19th century, resulting in a major growth in Korean literature. Sinsoseol, for instance, are novels written in hangul.
During the Japanese rule of Korea (1910–1945), speech and the press were restricted, affecting the Korean literature of the time. Many expressions of the late Joseon period, with their focus on self-reliance and independence, were no longer possible. Ernest Bethel's Taehan Maeil Shinbo (大韓每日申報) provided a brief loophole, from July 1904 till May 1909, for Korean writers, but after control of the paper was seized by the Government-General all uncensored Korean publishing became impossible.[5]
With the Samil Movement in 1919 a new form of Korean literature was established. Many writers exhibited a more positive attitude, trying to cope with the national situation at the time. Literature focused on self-discovery, and increasingly on concrete reality. Artistic endeavors were supported by new nationalist newspapers.
In 1919 Kim Tong-in (김동인) and Kim Hyok founded a literary magazine, Changjo (창조 Creation) marking the starting point of modern Korean literature. The magazine was followed in 1920 by Kaebyok (개벽), and Pyeho (폐허 廢墟 The Ruins, Hwang Song-u and Yom Sang-sop); in 1921 Changmichon (장미촌); in 1922 Paekcho (백조 White Tide, Yi Sang-hwa and Hyon Chin-gon); and in 1923 Kumsong (금성 Gold Star, of Yi Chang-hui and Yang Chu-dong). The literary magazines which appeared during the 1920s and 1930s laid the basis for the future development of modern Korean literature. Almost all of these magazines were ordered to discontinue publication in the 1940s as the Japanese tightened their grip with the spread of their aggressive war to the Pacific and all of Southeast Asia. The important task of the 1920s was to work out ways of introducing foreign elements into literary works dealing with the reality of colonial rule in Korea.
Many novels of the 1920s centered around the themes of the suffering of intellectuals who drift through reality. The lives of farmers were often depicted as pathetic. As the Japanese government strengthened ideological coercion during the 1930s, Korean literature was directly affected. Many novels of the time experimented with new literary styles and techniques.
Poets included: Han Yong-un (한용운), Buddhist reformer and poet: Nim-ui chimmuk (The Silence of My Beloved, 1925), Chang Man-yong, Chu Yo-han, Hwang Sok-woo (황석우), Kim Myeong-sun, Kim Sowol (김소월), Kim Yun-sik, Pak Tu-jin, Yi Sang, Yi Sang-hwa (이상화, 李相和), Yu Chi-hwan, Yun Dong-ju, and Yi Yuk-sa (이육사, 李陸史, 1904-1944) tortured to death by the Japanese military police.
After the liberation from Japan in 1945, Korea soon found itself divided into North and South. The Korean War led to the development of literature centered around the wounds and chaos of war.
North Korea (DPRK)
South Korea (ROK)
Much of the post-war literature in South Korea deals with the daily lives of ordinary people, and their struggles with national pain. The collapse of the traditional Korean value system is another common theme of the time. In the post-war period, a traditionalist movement emerged: going back to the roots of traditional rhythms and folk sentiments. Other poets are linked to an experimentalist movement, attempting to bring new experiences to Korean poetry.
In the 1960s many South Korean writers started to reject post-war literature as sentimental escapism. While some South Korean authors reflected traditional humanism, writings by many others reflect deep alienation and despair. They sought to engage the readers with the political reality of the time. This led poetry and literature in general to become an important means of political expression. Also remarkable for the development of literature in 1960s was the influence of Western modernism. The 1970s saw the emergence of literature that was anti-establishment and dealt with the concerns of rapid industrialization, such as the neglect of farmers.
At the same time, literature concerned with the national division (bundan soseol) became more popular. At the beginning of the twenty-first century, the national division is still a common theme, but classic stories are also popular. Some North Korean writers are very highly appreciated in the South and in 2005 writers from both Koreas held a joint literary congress.
Until the 1980s Korean literature was largely unknown outside of the peninsula. The kind of works translated has become increasingly diverse, and the quality of the translations has improved.*[7] Flowers of Fire (1974)[8] was one of the first anthologies of Korean literature published in English. In non-English-speaking countries there are fewer Korean works translated, though LTI Korea has also promoted translations in German, Spanish and French. The increased popularity of Korean film has increased interest in Korean mass market literature, particularly in Japan and China.
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